PREFACE
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDENT
CHAPTER 1 - BASIC CONCEPTS |
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1.0 Introduction
1.1 History, 1
1.2 Solid State Circuit Models, 3
1.3 Linear and Nonlinear Circuit Elements, 4
1.4 Analog vs. Digital Signals, 6
1.5 Dependent Sources, 7
1.6 Frequency Effects, 8
1.7 Analysis and Design, 10 |
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1.7.1 Comparison of Design and Analysis, 10
1.7.2 Origin of Design Requirements, 10
1.7.3 What Do "Open-Ended" and "Trade Off" Mean?, 11 |
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1.8 Computer Simulations, 13
1.9 Components of the Design Process, 14 |
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1.9.1 Principles of Design, 15
1.9.2 Problem Definition, 16
1.9.3 Subdividing the Problem, 17
1.9.4 Documentation, 17
1.9.5 The Schematic Diagram, 18
1.9.6 The Parts List, 18
1.9.7 Running Lists and Other Documentation, 19
1.9.8 Using Documents, 20
1.9.9 Design Checklist, 20
1.9.10 Prototyping the Circuit, 21 |
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Summary, 23 |
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| CHAPTER 2 - IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS |
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2.0 Introduction, 24
2.1 Ideal Op-Amps, 25 |
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2.1.1 Dependent Sources, 25
2.1.2 Operational Amplifier Equivalent Circuit, 27
2.1.3 Analysis Method, 30 |
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2.2 The Inverting Amplifier, 30
2.3 The Non-Inverting Amplifier, 33
2.4 Input Resistance of Op-Amp Circuits, 41
2.5 Combined Inverting and Non-Inverting Inputs, 44
2.6 Design of Op-Amp Circuits, 46
2.7 Other Op-Amp Applications, 52 |
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2.7.1 Negative Impedance Circuit, 52
2.7.2 Dependent-Current Generator, 53
2.7.3 Current-to-Voltage Converter, 54
2.7.4 Voltage-to-Current Converter, 55
2.7.5 Inverting Amplifier with Impedances, 56
2.7.6 Analog Computer Applications, 57
2.7.7 Non-Inverting Miller Integrator, 59 |
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Summary, 60
Problems, 60 |
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| CHAPTER 3 - SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE CIRCUIT ANALYSIS |
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3.0 Introduction, 70
3.1 Theory of Semiconductors, 71 |
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3.1.1 Conduction in Materials, 73
3.1.2 Conduction in Semiconductor Materials, 75
3.1.3 Crystalline Structure, 76
3.1.4 Generation and Recombination of Electrons and Holes, 78
3.1.5 Doped Semiconductors, 79
3.1.6 n-type Semiconductor, 80
3.1.7 p-type Semiconductor, 80
3.1.8 Carrier Concentrations, 80
3.1.9 Excess Carriers, 82
3.1.10 Recombination and Generation of Excess Carriers, 82
3.1.11 Transport of Electric Current, 83
3.1.12 Diffusion of Carriers, 83
3.1.13 Drift in an Electric Field, 84 |
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3.2 Semiconductor Diodes, 87 |
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3.2.1 Diode Construction, 89
3.2.2 Relationship Between Diode Current and Diode Voltage, 90
3.2.3 Diode Operation, 92
3.2.4 Temperature Effects, 93
3.2.5 Diode Equivalent Circuit Models, 95
3.2.6 Diode Circuit Analysis, 96
Graphical Analysis, 96
Piecewise-Linear Approximation, 99
3.2.7 Power Handling Capability, 103
3.2.8 Diode Capacitance, 104 |
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3.3 Rectification, 104 |
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3.3.1 Half-Wave Rectification, 105
3.3.2 Full-Wave Rectification, 106
3.3.3 Filtering, 107
3.3.4 Voltage Doubling Circuit, 110 |
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3.4 Zener Diodes, 112 |
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3.4.1 Zener Regulator, 113
3.4.2 Practical Zener Diodes and Percent Regulation, 117 |
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3.5 Clippers and Clampers, 119 |
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3.5.1 Clippers, 119
3.5.2 Clampers, 124 |
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3.6 Op-Amp Circuits Containing Diodes, 127
3.7 Alternate Types of Diodes, 129 |
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3.7.1 Schottky Diodes, 129
3.7.2 Light-Emitting Diodes (LED), 130
3.7.3 Photo Diodes, 131 |
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3.8 Manufacturers' Specifications, 132
Summary, 133
Problems, 134 |
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| CHAPTER 4 - BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS |
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4.0 Introduction, 149
4.1 Structure of Bipolar Transistors, 149
4.2 Large-Signal BJT Model, 153
4.3 Derivation of Small-Signal ac Models, 154
4.4 Two-Port Small Signal ac Models, 156
4.5 Characteristic Curves, 158
4.6 Manufacturers' Data Sheets for BJTs, 160
4.7 BJT Models for Computer Simulations, 161
4.8 Single-Stage Amplifier Configurations, 164
4.9 Biasing of Single-Stage Amplifiers, 166
4.10 Power Considerations, 169 |
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4.10.1 Derivation of Power Equations, 170 |
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4.11 Analysis and Design of Voltage Amplifier Bias Circuits, 172 |
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4.11.1 Analysis Procedure, 172
4.11.2 Design Procedure, 177
4.11.3 Amplifier Power Sources, 183
4.11.4 Selection of Components, 184 |
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4.12 Analysis and Design of Current Amplifier Bias Circuits, 184
4.13 Nonlinearities of Bipolar Junction Transistors188
4.14 On-Off Characteristics of BJT Circuits, 190
4.15 Integrated Circuit Fabrication, 192 |
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4.15.1 Transistor and Diodes, 192
4.15.2 Resistors, 193
4.15.3 Capacitors, 193
4.15.4 Lateral Transistor, 194 |
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Summary, 194
Problems, 195 |
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| CHAPTER 5 - BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS |
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5.0 Introduction, 207
5.1 Common-Emitter Amplifier, 208 |
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5.1.1 Gain Impedance Formula, 208
5.1.2 Input Resistance, Rin, 209
5.1.3 Current Gain, Ai, 210
5.1.4 Voltage Gain, Av, 210
5.1.5 Output Resistance, Ro, 211 |
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5.2. Common-Emitter with Emitter Resistor (Emitter-Resistor Amplifier), 213 |
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5.2.1 Input Resistance, Rin, 213
5.2.2 Current Gain, Ai, 215
5.2.3 Voltage Gain, Av, 215
5.2.4 Output Resistance, Ro, 215 |
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5.3 Common-Collector (Emitter-Follower) Amplifier, 224 |
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5.3.1 Input Resistance, Rin, 224
5.3.2 Current Gain, Ai, 225
5.3.3 Voltage Gain, Av, 225
5.3.4 Output Resistance, Ro, 226 |
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5.4 Common-Base Amplifier, 230 |
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5.4.1 Input Resistance, Rin, 231
5.4.2 Current Gain, Ai, 231
5.4.3 Voltage Gain, Av, 232
5.4.4 Output Resistance, Ro, 232 |
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5.5 Transistor Amplifier Applications, 236
5.6 Phase Splitter, 237
5.7 Amplifier Coupling, 238 |
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5.7.1 Capacitive Coupling, 238
5.7.2 Direct Coupling, 238
5.7.3 Transformer Coupling, 241
5.7.4 Optical Coupling, 243 |
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5.8 Multistage Amplifier Analysis, 245
5.9 Cascode Configuration, 250
5.10 Current Sources and Active Loads, 252 |
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5.10.1 A Simple Current Source, 252
5.10.2 Widlar Current Source, 253
5.10.3 Wilson Current Source, 256
5.10.4 Multiple Current Sources Using Current Mirrors, 258
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Summary, 259
Problems, 262 |
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| CHAPTER 6 - FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS |
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6.0 Introduction, 277
6.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of FETs, 278
6.2 Metal-Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET), 279 |
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6.2.1 Enhancement-Mode MOSFET Terminal Characteristics, 281
6.2.2 Depletion-Mode MOSFET, 284
6.2.3 Large-Signal Equivalent Circuit, 287
6.2.4 Small-Signal Model of MOSFET, 287 |
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6.3 Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET), 290 |
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6.3.1 JFET Gate-to-Source Voltage Variation, 293
6.3.2 JFET Transfer Characteristics, 293
6.3.3 JFET Small-Signal ac Model, 296 |
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6.4 FET Amplifier Configurations and Biasing, 299 |
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6.4.1 Discrete-Component MOSFET Biasing, 299 |
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6.5 MOSFET Integrated Circuits, 302 |
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6.5.1 Biasing of MOSFET Integrated Circuits, 303
6.5.2 Body Effect, 305 |
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6.6 Comparison of MOSFET to JFET, 306
6.7 FET Models for Computer Simulations, 308
6.8 FET Amplifiers - Canonical Configurations, 312
6.9 FET Amplifier Analysis, 314 |
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6.9.1 The CS (and Source Resistor) Amplifier, 314
6.9.2 The CG Amplifier, 319
6.9.3 The CD (SF) Amplifier, 323 |
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6.10 FET Amplifier Design, 326 |
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6.10.1 The CS Amplifier, 326
6.10.2 The CD Amplifier, 336
6.10.3 The SF Bootstrap Amplifier, 340 |
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6.11 Other Devices, 343 |
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6.11.1 Metal Semiconductor Barrier Junction Transistor, 343
6.11.2 VMOSFET, 344
6.10.3 Other MOS Devices, 344 |
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Summary, 345
Problems, 346 |
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| CHAPTER 7 - BIAS STABILITY OF TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS |
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7.0 Introduction, 358
7.1 Types of Biasing, 358 |
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7.1.1 Current Feedback Biasing, 359
7.1.2 Voltage and Current Biasing, 360 |
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7.2 Effects of Parameter Changes - Bias Stability, 362 |
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7.2.1 CE Configuration, 363
7.2.2 EF Configuration, 369 |
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7.3 Diode Compensation, 372
7.4 Designing for BJT Amplifier Bias Stability, 374
7.5 FET Temperature Effects, 375
7.6 Reducing Temperature Variations, 377
Summary, 379
Problems, 380 |
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| CHAPTER 8 - POWER AMPLIFIERS AND POWER SUPPLIES |
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8.0 Introduction, 384
8.1 Classes of Amplifiers, 384 |
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8.1.1 Class-A Operation, 385
8.1.2 Class-B Operation, 385
8.1.3 Class-AB Operation, 387
8.1.4 Class-C Operation, 388 |
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8.2 Power Amplifier Circuits - Class-A Operation, 389 |
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8.2.1 Inductively-Coupled Amplifier, 389
8.2.2 Transformer-Coupled Power Amplifier, 391 |
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8.3 Power Amplifier Circuits - Class-B Operation, 395 |
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8.3.1 Complementary Symmetry Class-B and -AB Power Amplifier, 395
8.3.2 Diode-Compensated Complementary-Symmetry Class-B Power Amps (CSDC), 398
8.3.3 Power Calculations for Class-B Push-Pull Amplifier, 401 |
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8.4 Darlington Circuit, 408
8.5 Power Supply Using Power Transistors, 413 |
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8.5.1 Power Supply Using Discrete Components, 413
8.5.2 Power Supply Using IC Regulator (Three-Terminal Regulator), 417
8.5.3 Power Supply Using Three-Terminal Adjustable Regulator, 421
8.5.4 Higher-Current Regulator, 422 |
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8.6 Switching Regulators, 423 |
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8.6.1 Efficiency of Switching Regulators, 425 |
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Summary, 425
Problems, 426 |
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| CHAPTER 9 - PRACTICAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS |
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9.0 Introduction, 437
9.1 Differential Amplifiers, 438 |
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9.1.1 dc Transfer Characteristics, 438
9.1.2 Common-Mode and Differential-Mode Gains, 439
9.1.3 Differential Amplifier with Constant Current Source, 442
9.1.4 Differential Amplifier with Single-Ended Input and Output, 445 |
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9.2 Level Shifters, 451
9.3 The Typical Op-Amp, 454 |
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9.3.1 Packaging, 455
9.3.2 Power Requirements, 456
9.3.3 The 741 Op-Amp, 456
Bias Circuits, 457
Short Circuit Protection, 457
Input Stage, 458
Intermediate Stage, 458
Output Stage, 458 |
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9.4 Manufacturers' Specifications, 459
9.5 Practical Op-Amps, 459 |
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9.5.1 Open-Loop Voltage Gain (G), 460
9.5.2 Modified Op-Amp Model, 461
9.5.3 Input Offset Voltage (Vio), 461
9.5.4 Input Bias Current (Ibias), 463
9.5.5 Common-Mode Rejection, 467
9.5.6 Power Supply Rejection Ratio, 467
9.5.7 Output Resistance, 468 |
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9.6 Computer Simulation of Op-Amp Circuits, 471
9.7 Non-Inverting Amplifier, 473 |
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9.7.1 Input and Output Resistance, 473
9.7.2 Voltage Gain, 475
9.7.3 Multiple-Input Amplifier, 478
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9.8 Inverting Amplifier, 479 |
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9.8.1 Input and Output Resistance, 479
9.8.2 Voltage Gain, 480
9.8.3 Multiple-Input Amplifiers, 482 |
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9.9 Differential Summing, 485
9.10 Amplifiers with Balanced Inputs or Outputs, 489
9.11 Coupling Between Multiple Inputs, 492
9.12 Power Audio Op-Amps, 493 |
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9.12.1 Bridge Power Op-Amp, 494
9.12.2 Intercom, 495 |
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Summary, 496
Problems, 496 |
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| CHAPTER 10 - FREQUENCY BEHAVIOR OF TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS |
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10.0 Introduction, 509
10.1 Low-Frequency Response of Amplifiers, 513 |
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10.1.1 Low-Frequency Response of Emitter-Resistor Amplifier, 513
10.1.2 Design for a Given Frequency Characteristic, 518
10.1.3 Low-Frequency Response of Common-Emitter Amplifier, 522
10.1.4 Low-Frequency Response of Common-Source Amplifier, 525
10.1.5 Low-Frequency Response of Common-Base Amplifier, 528
10.1.6 Low-Frequency Response of Emitter-Follower Amplifier, 529
10.1.7 Low-Frequency Response of Source-Follower Amplifier, 530 |
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10.2 High-Frequency Transistor Models, 532 |
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10.2.1 Miller Theorem, 533
10.2.2 High-Frequency BJT Model, 534
10.2.3 High-Frequency FET Model, 537 |
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10.3 High-Frequency Response of Amplifiers, 538 |
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10.3.1 High-Frequency Response of Common-Emitter Amplifier, 538
10.3.2 High-Frequency Response of Common-Source Amplifier, 542
10.3.3 High-Frequency Response of Common-Base Amplifier, 544
10.3.4 High-Frequency Response of Emitter-Follower Amplifier, 546
10.3.5 High-Frequency Response of Common-Drain(SF) Amplifier, 548
10.3.6 Cascode Amplifiers, 549 |
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10.4 High-Frequency Amplifier Design, 550
10.5 Frequency Response of Op-Amp Circuits, 550 |
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10.5.1 Open-Loop Op-Amp Response554
10.5.2 Phase Shift, 557
10.5.3 Slew Rate, 557
10.5.4 Designing Amplifiers Using Multiple Op-Amps, 560
10.5.5 101 Amplifier, 567 |
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Summary, 570
Problems, 571 |
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| CHAPTER 11 - FEEDBACK AND STABILITY |
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11.0 Introduction, 585
11.1 Feedback Amplifier Considerations, 586
11.2 Types of Feedback, 587
11.3 Feedback Amplifiers, 588 |
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11.3.1 Current Feedback - Voltage Subtraction for Discrete Amplifiers, 588
11.3.2 Voltage Feedback - Current Subtraction for a Discrete Amplifiers, 592 |
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11.4 Multistage Feedback Amplifiers, 594
11.5 Feedback in Operational Amplifiers, 595
11.6 Stability of Feedback Amplifiers, 599 |
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11.6.1 System Stability and Frequency Response, 601
11.6.2 Bode Plots and System Stability, 605 |
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11.7 Frequency Response - Feedback Amplifier, 610 |
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11.7.1 Single-Pole Amplifier, 610
11.7.2 Two-Pole Amplifier, 611 |
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11.8 Design of a Three-Pole Amplifier With Lead Equalizer, 617
11.9 Phase-Lag Equalizer, 623
11.10 Effects of Capacitive Loading, 624
11.11 Oscillators, 625 |
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11.11.1 The Colpitts and Hartley Oscillators, 625
11.11.2 The Wien Bridge Oscillator, 626
11.11.3 The Phase Shift Oscillator, 628
11.11.4 The Crystal Oscillator, 629
11.11.5 Touch-Tone Generator, 631 |
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Summary, 631
Problems, 633 |
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| CHAPTER 12 - ACTIVE FILTERS |
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12.0 Introduction, 641
12.1 Integrators and Differentiators, 641
12.2 Active Network Design, 645
12.3 Active Filters, 648 |
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12.3.1 Filter Properties and Classification, 649
12.3.2 First-Order Active Filters, 655 |
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12.4 Single Amplifier - General Type, 666
12.5 Classical Analog Filters, 668 |
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12.5.1 Butterworth Filters, 669
12.5.2 Chebyshev Filters, 672 |
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12.6 Transformations, 674 |
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12.6.1 Low-Pass to High-Pass Transformation, 674
12.6.2 Low-Pass to Band-Pass Transformation, 675 |
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12.7 Design of Butterworth and Chebyshev Filters, 676 |
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12.7.1 Low-Pass Filter Design, 677
12.7.2 Filter Order, 677
12.7.3 Parameter Scale Factor, 680
12.7.4 High-Pass Filter, 688
12.7.5 Band-Pass and Band-Stop Filter Design, 690 |
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12.8 Integrated Circuit Filters, 694 |
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12.8.1 Switched-Capacitor Filters, 695
12.8.2 Sixth-Order Switched-Capacitor Butterworth Low-Pass Filter, 697 |
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12.9 Concluding Remarks, 699
Summary, 699
Problems, 700 |
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| CHAPTER 13 - QUASI-LINEAR CIRCUITS |
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13.0 Introduction, 706
13.1 Rectifiers, 706
13.2 Feedback Limiters, 717
13.3 Comparators, 731
13.4 Schmitt Triggers, 735 |
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13.4.1 Schmitt Triggers with Limiters, 738
13.4.2 Integrated Circuit Schmitt Trigger, 744 |
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13.5 Conversion Between Analog and Digital, 746 |
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13.5.1 Digital-to-Analog Converter, 746
13.5.2 Analog-to-Digital Converter, 747 |
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Summary, 751
Problems, 752 |
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| CHAPTER 14 - PULSED WAVEFORMS AND TIMING CIRCUITS |
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14.0 Introduction, 760
14.1 High-Pass RC Network, 762 |
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14.1.1 Steady-State Response of High-Pass Network to Pulse Train, 766 |
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14.2 Steady-State Response Low-Pass RC Network to Pulse Train, 771
14.3 Diodes, 777 |
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14.3.1 Steady-State Response of Diode Circuit to Pulse Train, 777 |
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14.4 Trigger Circuits, 781 |
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14.4.1 Pulse Train Response, 782 |
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14.5 The 555 Timer, 783 |
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14.5.1 The Relaxation Oscillator, 784
14.5.2 The 555 as an Oscillator, 787
14.5.3 The 555 as a Monostable Circuit, 794 |
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Summary, 796
Problems, 797 |
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| CHAPTER 15 - DIGITAL LOGIC FAMILIES |
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15.0 Introduction, 805
15.1 Basic Concepts of Digital Logic, 805 |
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15.1.1 State Definitions - Positive and Negative Logic, 806
15.1.2 Time-Independent or Unclocked Logic, 807
15.1.3 Time-Dependent or Clocked Logic, 807
15.1.4 Elementary Logic Functions, 807
15.1.5 Boolean Algebra, 811 |
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15.2 IC Construction and Packaging, 812
15.3 Practical Considerations in Digital Design, 814
15.4 Digital Circuit Characteristics of BJTs, 817
15.5 Bipolar Logic Families, 818
15.6 Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL), 818 |
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15.6.1 Open Collector Configurations, 820
15.6.2 Active Pull Up, 823
15.6.3 H-TTL and LP-TTL Gates, 828
15.6.4 Schottky TTL Gates, 828
15.6.5 Tri-State Gates, 829
15.6.6 Device Listings, 831 |
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15.7 Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL), 832 |
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15.7.1 Device Listings, 834 |
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15.8 Digital Circuit Characteristics of FETs, 835 |
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15.8.1 The n-Channel Enhancement MOSFET, 835
15.8.2 The p-Channel Enhancement MOSFET, 835 |
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15.9 FET Transistor Families, 836 |
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15.9.1 n-Channel MOS, 836
15.9.2 p-Channel MOS, 836 |
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15.10 Complementary MOS (CMOS), 837 |
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15.10.1 CMOS Analog Switch, 841
15.10.2 CMOS Device Listings and Usage Rules, 843 |
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15.11 Comparison of Logic Families, 845
Summary, 847
Problems, 848 |
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| CHAPTER 16 - DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS |
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16.0 Introduction, 856
16.1 Decoders and Encoders, 857 |
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16.1.1 Data Selector/Multiplexer, 860
16.1.2 Keyboard Encoders/Decoders, 862
16.1.3 Parity Generators/Checkers, 864 |
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16.2 Drivers and Associated Systems, 864 |
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16.2.1 The Liquid Crystal Display (LCD), 867 |
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16.3 Flip-Flops, Latches, and Shift Registers, 868 |
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16.3.1 Flip-Flops, 870
16.3.2 Latches and Memories, 875
16.3.3 Shift Registers, 877 |
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16.4 Counters, 879 |
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16.4.1 Frequency Measurement, 886 |
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16.5 Clocks, 889 |
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16.5.1 Voltage Controlled Oscillator, 889 |
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16.6 Memories, 892 |
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16.6.1 Serial Memories, 892
16.6.2 Random Access Memory (RAM), 895
16.6.3 ROMs and PROMs, 896
16.6.4 EPROMs, 897 |
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16.7 More Complex Circuits, 899 |
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16.7.1 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), 899
16.7.2 Full Adders, 900
16.7.3 Look-Ahead Carry Generators, 900
16.7.4 Magnitude Comparator, 902 |
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16.8 Programmable Array Logic (PAL), 903
16.9 Introduction to Problems, 903 |
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16.9.1 Generating Random Numbers, 904
16.9.2 Measurement of Mechanical Angle of Velocity, 904
16.9.3 The Hall-Effect Switch, 905
16.9.4 Use of Timing Windows, 906 |
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16.10 Concluding Remarks, 907
Problems, 908 |
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APPENDICES
A. Micro-Cap and SPICE, 929
B. Standard Component Values, 944
C. Manufacturers' Data Sheets, 946
D. Answer to Selected Problems , 985 |
